Understanding modernity
Modernity is one of the most important concepts that you will come across when it comes to studying sociology. The terms modernity and modernisation are used to describe the complex range of phenomenon associated with these changes that separated contemporary society from previous (traditional) societies.
Specifically, modernity refers to the various characteristics I will describe while modernisation refers to the many processes that take a society along this path.
This blog is a simple introduction to the concept and in later blogs I will expand on some of the ideas. It will hopefully provide you some insights into this phenomenon. As these are listed, it is important to understand that modernity transformed both the structures and relationships of the world, and while it was concentrated in Europe, its effects were far reaching. This also transformed the way we see the world and learn.
Key thinkers of modernity focussed on attempting to understand the forces that shape contemporary life: that is, key features and social trends that have shaped society in the past, and shape our lives today and most likely to continue to shape society into the future. The thinkers who started researching these areas include August Comte, Karl Marx, Max Weber and Emile Durkheim. They wanted to understand how societies moved from pre-industrial to modern societies, and what the future was likely to be.
Now the exact time we moved from pre-modern to modern societies is open to different views, but the starting point most often favoured is the beginning of the industrial revolution. These changes were described by Karl Polyani (1958) as the 'great transformation' of western societies.
The ten key dimensions of modernity are as follows:
1. Rationality
The first important characteristic of modernity is that society should be organised under 'rational' lines rather than according to tradition. That is, at one time, societies used to organise themselves according to tradition: women raised children because that was the tradition. No we have 'rationality', or rational principles. These principles emphasise the use of logic, observation, scientific principle and experimentation as the basis of what to believe and the actions to take.
2. A 'belief' in science
Implicit in the belief that the world should become more rational is a belief in science and scientific method. As a result, science has become one of the core guiding principles in our society. We build houses and buildings based on scientific knowledge not traditional processes. Medicine has become a dominant way that we see our lives – what we eat, how we exercise and issues of hygiene. But this has not always been the case.
3. The nation state
Modernity has also seen the nation-state as the key organising principle and political organisation of our lives. On pre-modern times, boundaries between social groups were quite fluid and open to dispute. Modernity has brought the emergence of nation states with (generally) fixed and stable borders, and accompanied by strong centralised governments that have the ultimate military power within its borders. This type of social organisation was vital for the development of capital and industry. This is closely linked with the rise and development of bureaucracy and the intrusion of the state into the daily lives of its citizens – the focus of the research undertaken by Max Weber (which I will probably discuss at sometime in the future).
4. The emergence of 'class' structures
The key theorist here is Karl Marx, who argued that what separates modern (capitalist) societies from other social orders and what brings us to modern life is that people do not produce goods for their own consumption but for markets and for profit. Up until the emergence of modern societies, most things were produced for consumption with the excess traded. But this changed under conditions of modernity as people began to make extra produce specifically to sell and make a profit. This caused a split in society in two: the bosses (or the owners of the factors of production) and the workers (those who had to work for a living).
5. The belief in 'progress'
If we think about pre-modern societies, life moved in cycles often relying on weather patterns and seasons. But under conditions of modernity, human beings and societies are believed to be evolving or progressing to a 'better' state, which can deal with injustice, poverty and inequality. This is associated with a long-term belief that all societies will become democratic, and that certain 'freedoms' will become universal. But as we also discussed last week, this is not something that is universally accepted.
6. The rise of the individual and freedom
The sixth dimension of modernity is the rise of the individual and individualism. A key dimension of the move from traditional to modern life was the idea that you as an individual could make choices. Where once all your life choices were bound by tradition. Once, as women, your role was assigned as mother, home-maker, and care giver. I am not saying that there are still not power relationships that do not limit your choices, what I am saying is that now at least the very idea of 'life choice' exists. This concept of choice is reflected in many ways in our contemporary society – not only with the emergence of life choices but also with the idea of consumption and consumer choice. As individual consumers, we are not bound by one choice, but pick how we want to consume. Our roles on consumers of leisure, for example, may be 'masculine' or feminine.
7. Self expression and identity
The move from traditional societies to modern ones was also supposed to allow us the ability to for our own identities and express these the way we wanted to. So your identity was basically dependent on your birth. The move from traditional societies to modern ones was also supposed to allow us the ability to for our own identities and express these the way we wanted to. There are a number of ways to do this: through your choice of career but also fashion and what you buy.
8. Expression of culture in the negotiation of power
Modern life is also is awash with signs, images and meanings. Most obviously it involves the aestheticisation of our lives through commodities and advertising, packaging and so on. Much of these images actually create issues around power. So, that is, in modern societies, power is expressed in a number of ways. While it is also portrayed through guns, armies and force, it also emerges through symbols that show you what is preferred, establishing unequal power relationships. One example I is the idea of happy families in advertising that encourages how comfortable we fill in our environment. Think of any advertising and ask yourself, what is the image – the skin colour, body shape, good looks – and think about how that makes you feel about who you are. How many veiled newsreaders are there? How many indigenous faces are portrayed on packaging? There is a specific hierarchy of happiness and authenticity in modern society that is embedded within broader society.
9. Control
This then takes us to the issue of 'control'. Once you free people from tradition, their choices are always an area of concern for the governing elites. The ninth characteristic of modern society is that we are meant to have control over lives, but the issue is, we cannot have too much choice because this threatens the stability of society. So choice exists but it is within boundaries. Even today there is a great deal of debate about how leisure time should be spent, the work-life balance is constantly in the news, how much alcohol we drink and so on.
10. The private sphere
The final dimension discussed f the gap between the public and private sphere: that is, in modern societies we separate what is public and what is private – though this is a division that keeps on moving. This clear division has existed to a degree throughout history, but we have never there are two differences. The first is that we have never lived in urban centres before – meaning that privacy and being surrounded by strangers has never been such an important issue. The second issue, and even more important, is the fact that there are many choices we make that are, at least in principle, unconstrained. That is, no one has the right to tell you how to spend your money or your leisure time. But this issue of the private sphere actually creates an interesting challenge: that sometimes what suits the private is actually problematic for the public. Think of the discussion around greenhouse emissions. Each of us chooses to drive and to use a heater or air conditioner at home. This is our private choice and right. But the impacts on the broader community are leading to climate change and actually challenging the very infrastructures which hold our communities together.
That is a quick summary of the characteristics of modernity: I will add some more stuff on the complexities of modernity at some later date.
As always, feedback welcome
Cheers, j
References
- Arvanitakis, J. (2009) Contemporary Society, Oxford University Press, Melbourne
- Slater, D. (1997) Consumer Culture and Modernity, Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
- Van Krieken et al (2006) Sociology: Themes and perspectives, Pearson Education Australia, Frenches Forest
Tuesday, March 10, 2009
Tuesday, March 3, 2009
What is structuralism?
What is structuralism?
A term often used in sociology is ‘functional structuralism’.
I thought I would write a quick blog and answer the question: What is structuralism?
Structuralism is an important sociological school of thought. The basic premise here is the assumption that human action can be primarily understood as a product of the underlying 'structures' (van Krikan et al 2006). These structures include the economic and political systems that we live in, as well as the ideological systems that dominate. For example, because we live in a capitalist system with specific capitalist structures, all our actions should be primarily understood from this perspective.
Structuralists (or those that support the theory of structuralism) also believe that these structures are concrete and immovable, and therefore almost impossible to change.
Think about it this way – how difficult is it to imagine living without structures that are central to our capitalist system. Is it possible to imagine bartering rather than shopping?
Sociological structures express the idea that social formations are organised. This organisation occurs along patterned lines that endure and persist over time. We may not even be aware that these patterns exist, but they are there and act as a constraint for those living within them. In some ways, this position is instinctive, as it is hard to argue that we are not born into a social vacuum. Rather, there are an existing set of social arrangements which carry with them expectation that, if we transgress, we may be punished.
Every time you go shopping, you support the capitalist system that we live in. Imagine you decided to 'fight back' against the capitalist system by refusing to pay for things? You would not get very far… and this is called stealing!
It is the ideological structures that are the subtlest because they are essentially invisible. Despite this, these ideological structures shape our assumptions, establishing what is seen as being true, inevitable and basic commonsense.
Our society is not unique in this way as all societies at all times are shaped by patterned way of doing things – and it is this that we define as 'social structure'.
One of the fathers of sociology, Emile Durkheim, used the term 'social fact' to express this notion (Van Kriekan 2006). Durkheim argued that who we are and how we behave in society is a result of the influence of these social facts, arguing that it is specific social arrangements that constrain and regulate our actions as humans.
Structuralism is broadly split into two broad versions: consensus structuralism (or structural functionalism) and conflict structuralism (also known as critical or conflict theory). We discussed these in class but I will probably cover them in further blogs.
References
Van Krieken et al (2006) Sociology: Themes and perspectives, Pearson Education Australia, Frenches Forest
A term often used in sociology is ‘functional structuralism’.
I thought I would write a quick blog and answer the question: What is structuralism?
Structuralism is an important sociological school of thought. The basic premise here is the assumption that human action can be primarily understood as a product of the underlying 'structures' (van Krikan et al 2006). These structures include the economic and political systems that we live in, as well as the ideological systems that dominate. For example, because we live in a capitalist system with specific capitalist structures, all our actions should be primarily understood from this perspective.
Structuralists (or those that support the theory of structuralism) also believe that these structures are concrete and immovable, and therefore almost impossible to change.
Think about it this way – how difficult is it to imagine living without structures that are central to our capitalist system. Is it possible to imagine bartering rather than shopping?
Sociological structures express the idea that social formations are organised. This organisation occurs along patterned lines that endure and persist over time. We may not even be aware that these patterns exist, but they are there and act as a constraint for those living within them. In some ways, this position is instinctive, as it is hard to argue that we are not born into a social vacuum. Rather, there are an existing set of social arrangements which carry with them expectation that, if we transgress, we may be punished.
Every time you go shopping, you support the capitalist system that we live in. Imagine you decided to 'fight back' against the capitalist system by refusing to pay for things? You would not get very far… and this is called stealing!
It is the ideological structures that are the subtlest because they are essentially invisible. Despite this, these ideological structures shape our assumptions, establishing what is seen as being true, inevitable and basic commonsense.
Our society is not unique in this way as all societies at all times are shaped by patterned way of doing things – and it is this that we define as 'social structure'.
One of the fathers of sociology, Emile Durkheim, used the term 'social fact' to express this notion (Van Kriekan 2006). Durkheim argued that who we are and how we behave in society is a result of the influence of these social facts, arguing that it is specific social arrangements that constrain and regulate our actions as humans.
Structuralism is broadly split into two broad versions: consensus structuralism (or structural functionalism) and conflict structuralism (also known as critical or conflict theory). We discussed these in class but I will probably cover them in further blogs.
References
Van Krieken et al (2006) Sociology: Themes and perspectives, Pearson Education Australia, Frenches Forest
Sunday, March 1, 2009
The referendum in Venezuela...
On 15 February 2009 Venezuelan President, Hugo Chávez, won an historic referendum clearing the way for him to keep running in — and possibly winning — presidential elections. Chávez justified the constitutional change on the grounds that he needs to continue his reign for another 10 years in order to implement his 21st-century version of socialism. He won over 54 per cent in a vote that had the second-lowest abstention rate in the last 10 years.
This seems to be a developing trend in Latin America, with Colombian President proposing a similar referendum.
In this article, co-written with Amy Tyler, we attempt to consider whether: "Is Chávez's Win A Good Thing?"
Check it out at....
Cheers, james
This seems to be a developing trend in Latin America, with Colombian President proposing a similar referendum.
In this article, co-written with Amy Tyler, we attempt to consider whether: "Is Chávez's Win A Good Thing?"
Check it out at....
http://www.newmatilda.com/2009/02/27/chavez-win-good
Cheers, james
Wednesday, February 25, 2009
Background: Introduction to Sociology
Background: Introduction to Sociology
This is some background material on Understanding Sociology - it is not a text book or refereed though it draws on some of the work within my book Contemporary Society. It should be used to enhance your knowledge, not as 'gospal'. As a result, do not use it in essays, but do use some of the refernces that I have listed.
The aim of this blog is to answer some questions... so let's go:
What is sociology?
Who we are as individuals is dependent in many ways on our social context. As a result, our social arrangements in which we live our lives shapes our sense of identity, how we live and also relate to the environment around us (be it the urban, rural or 'natural' environments). The study of these social arrangements is sociology.
Sociology is defined by Robert Van Kriekan 'the study of society… a description and analysis of the social forces that shape human behaviour… including the influence of the social, political, economic and cultural creations of social groups on their local, national and global environment' (Van Kriekan et al 2006).
What is meant by the sociological imagination?
For most of us, our understanding of the world is limited to our immediate experience of it – that is, our immediate environment. As a result, we often are unable to imagine the challenges the world faces because we are often focussed on our own concerns.
Sociologist and writer, C. Wright Mills (1966) attempted to deal with this issue by developing the term 'the sociological imagination'. That is, the connections between individual behaviour and the social forces which have shaped it.
C. Wright Mills used the terms: private trouble (factors specific to individual) and public issues (factors which are caused by social forces beyond the power of any single individual to change). It is the public issues that sociology is concerned with. It takes sociological imagination to distinguish between situations caused by individuals or larger social forces that allows us to make an incomprehensible world comprehensible
What is meant by critical thinking?
Central in overcoming the challenge here is the concept of 'critical thinking'. That is, being able to look at the assumptions behind the things in everyday life that are arranged in certain ways and we consider it 'normal'. That is, we need to understand why boys wear blue and girls wear pink – there is nothing 'normal' about this, it is just the way the world is organised. Peter Berger (1966) called it 'debunking'
Consequently, we should come to accept that nothing is 'human nature'. Things are determined by our culture and society rather than being fixed and therefore, things vary between societies.
Often things in life may be seen as fixed because that is what our experience is limited to. Using our sociological imagination involves taking a fresh look at social formations not based on what we consider to be 'commonsense', but having a critical look at the invisible social factors behind them.
Is there one truth? Understanding sociological perspectives
It is important to note that there is no single sociological perspective – but a number of perspectives and theoretical approaches. This follows what philosopher Thomas Kuhn (1962) said about paradigms (the way we see the world or our perspectives), and their construction and reconstruction. A number of paradigms can co-exist, with no undisputed truths, but as a multiple ways of seeing things.
I used the following references in this blog:
- Arvanitakis, J. (2009) Contemporary Society, Oxford University Press, Melbourne
- Berger, P.L. (1966) Invitation to Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective, Anchor
- Kuhn, T.S. (1962) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London
- Van Krieken et al (2006) Sociology: Themes and perspectives, Pearson Education Australia, Frenches Forest
- Wright Mills, C. (1966) The Sociological Imagination, Oxford University Press
This is some background material on Understanding Sociology - it is not a text book or refereed though it draws on some of the work within my book Contemporary Society. It should be used to enhance your knowledge, not as 'gospal'. As a result, do not use it in essays, but do use some of the refernces that I have listed.
The aim of this blog is to answer some questions... so let's go:
What is sociology?
Who we are as individuals is dependent in many ways on our social context. As a result, our social arrangements in which we live our lives shapes our sense of identity, how we live and also relate to the environment around us (be it the urban, rural or 'natural' environments). The study of these social arrangements is sociology.
Sociology is defined by Robert Van Kriekan 'the study of society… a description and analysis of the social forces that shape human behaviour… including the influence of the social, political, economic and cultural creations of social groups on their local, national and global environment' (Van Kriekan et al 2006).
What is meant by the sociological imagination?
For most of us, our understanding of the world is limited to our immediate experience of it – that is, our immediate environment. As a result, we often are unable to imagine the challenges the world faces because we are often focussed on our own concerns.
Sociologist and writer, C. Wright Mills (1966) attempted to deal with this issue by developing the term 'the sociological imagination'. That is, the connections between individual behaviour and the social forces which have shaped it.
C. Wright Mills used the terms: private trouble (factors specific to individual) and public issues (factors which are caused by social forces beyond the power of any single individual to change). It is the public issues that sociology is concerned with. It takes sociological imagination to distinguish between situations caused by individuals or larger social forces that allows us to make an incomprehensible world comprehensible
What is meant by critical thinking?
Central in overcoming the challenge here is the concept of 'critical thinking'. That is, being able to look at the assumptions behind the things in everyday life that are arranged in certain ways and we consider it 'normal'. That is, we need to understand why boys wear blue and girls wear pink – there is nothing 'normal' about this, it is just the way the world is organised. Peter Berger (1966) called it 'debunking'
Consequently, we should come to accept that nothing is 'human nature'. Things are determined by our culture and society rather than being fixed and therefore, things vary between societies.
Often things in life may be seen as fixed because that is what our experience is limited to. Using our sociological imagination involves taking a fresh look at social formations not based on what we consider to be 'commonsense', but having a critical look at the invisible social factors behind them.
Is there one truth? Understanding sociological perspectives
It is important to note that there is no single sociological perspective – but a number of perspectives and theoretical approaches. This follows what philosopher Thomas Kuhn (1962) said about paradigms (the way we see the world or our perspectives), and their construction and reconstruction. A number of paradigms can co-exist, with no undisputed truths, but as a multiple ways of seeing things.
I used the following references in this blog:
- Arvanitakis, J. (2009) Contemporary Society, Oxford University Press, Melbourne
- Berger, P.L. (1966) Invitation to Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective, Anchor
- Kuhn, T.S. (1962) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London
- Van Krieken et al (2006) Sociology: Themes and perspectives, Pearson Education Australia, Frenches Forest
- Wright Mills, C. (1966) The Sociological Imagination, Oxford University Press
Sunday, June 15, 2008
On being an activist-academic...
I often describe myself is as an ‘activist-academic.’ (I use the hyphen rather than a dash or a space not for any other reason that the fact that a friend of mine has a hyphen in her surname and it has always given me ‘name envy.’)
But what does this mean? How does one ‘do’ activist-academia? To be honest, I do not know exactly know what being an activist-academic involves and I believe that that there is no single model academics follow to become activists (or activists follow to become academics for that matter).
It is a fair question to ask – especially at a time when fulltime positions are hard to come by and many of the post-grads that are working to complete their PhDs are desperate for a job and can be seen to be hostage to their institution. As such, the precarious nature of their position means that they do not want to ‘rock the boat.’
I am lucky – obtaining a fulltime academic position within two years of graduating: all about being in the right place at the right time. It was not too long ago that in addition to doing my PhD, I did nine tutorials and gave lectures across three institutions. I was also employed by Oxfam Hong King and actually commuted a few times from Sydney to Hong Kong.
While in Hong Kong, I took part in several protests and at one point was tear-gassed: all about being at the right place at the wrong time. At the time I remember thinking that being arrested in a foreign country would not look good on my academic record: even if it was for something banal like supporting the Korean farmers.
Upon reflection, maybe an activist-academic can be someone who attempts to link their research passions, with their politics and reflect this in their teaching (both in the style and the substance). That is, there is no point talking about the injustices of a class system that limits opportunities to education without acknowledging that there are some students who, because of work, are going to need the lecturer to be flexible even if is inconvenient to the lecturer.
So, how do we balance our activism with our life as an academic – especially one that operates within institutional boundaries? It is this question that was raised by a number of post-graduate students at University of Western Sydney in their reading group.
The issue is addressed in three separate articles from a special 2008 edition of Antipode (vol. 40, no. 3) that were distributed for discussion, which are:
- Doreen Massey, “When theory meets politics”, pp.492-97;
- Don Mitchell, “Confessions of a desk bound radical”, pp.449-54; and
- Jenny Pickerill, “The surprising sense of hope”, pp.482-88.
The three articles take a very different approach to what being an activist-academic means. Massey’s article begins with a drive in the streets of Caracas, Venezuela, as she reflects life as a ‘public intellectual.’ As Massey is driven around, she notices signs of activism and begins to consider how our work can be part of an emancipatory process.
The key thing that I really liked with this article is the way Massey concludes by noting that theory is best developed by interacting with the world around us: it is more robust and much more useful. This interaction with activism is how we can develop theory and make it better.
For Massey then, we can see academic-activism as the process of developing theoretical postulations that are based on the world around us and which are useful to those who are attempting to bring about emancipatory change.
The second article is by Don Mitchell who, as the title suggests, is struggling to reflect on his worth as an academic in progressive politics. I was a bit frustrated reading this – felt like yelling at him to ‘get over it.’ I mean, not everyone is cut out to be tear gassed, do a ‘lock on’ or read Delueze (or possibly do all three) – we all have our strengths and weaknesses. Mitchell laments, in part, the way he is stuck behind a desk but also acknowledges that there is information produced by the academic that can be used in social change and progressive politics. This conclusion is hardly surprising.
The important dimension of Mitchell’s work is that he reminds us that, just like activism, there is no ‘one way’ to be an activist-academic. Some people protest, others work in soup kitchens, others interact with activists and some are organisers themselves. Just like there are activists all over the world using different tactics, there is room for academics to work towards change using different strategies.
The third of this collection of articles is by Jenny Pickerill. This is the article that I could relate to the most, as it seems Jenny – I kind of feel like I am on a first name basis with her as a result – is actually an activist who becomes an academic. This reflects my own journey.
This article sees Jenny struggle in her move from organiser to someone now working in an institutional setting. She wonders if her research is simply sucking the intellect out of the activist community who she often feels she is taking advantage of. That is, by spending time with activists with the aim of publishing, she feels that it is more about furthering her own career rather than taking part in the process of social change.
Jenny also moves to discuss the issue of sustainability. In her journey, she figures out that her strength is writing – much like the above authors – so why spend time getting arrested on the frontline of a protest when discussing the issues faced is much more her strength (and writing is her passion).
----
There are three important themes that emerge from these readings that I think are important in the journey of an activist-academic. The first is that teaching is a form of activism. This is not just teaching in the classroom setting, but the process of producing research. The question that is important is who we are teaching and writing for. I mean, we all need to publish in obscure academic journals, but why should we not turn these articles into accessible publications also – looking at various outputs including fact sheets, newspaper articles and even letters to the editor. It is with such information that activists can be armed to confront injustice.
The second theme that is important here is that we should try and limit the gap between activism and academic. The gap is a socially constructed one and we need to accept movements for change require a broad range of skills and people: is the person handing out the leaflets demanding a just system for refugees any more ‘hardcore’ than the person writing the leaflet? The answer is not necessarily so – and it may even be the same person. The divide between the two borders on irrelevant.
The process of research itself is political – and by researching and providing information academics are adding to the momentum for change. To dismiss this contribution smells of anti-intellectualism – no matter which side of the political spectrum you sit on.
The third theme is that we sometimes need to get over ourselves. I mean that, while reflexive thinking is important in this journey, it is also essential not to take our roles too seriously. We should not see ourselves as tortured artists paralysed by a fear that we are not doing the right thing, but as having an important role to play in a global process of solidarity. (For my own work, I carry around a bunch of neuroses and insecurities. I stress that it is not good enough or that I may get the representation wrong of the groups that I work with.)
As Jenny says, however, what is important is looking for the spaces of hope. These are the ones that we need to highlight and slowly link together with the belief that radical and progressive change is possible. Talking about both the issues that need to be changed and identifying the change required is part of the journey that is what being an activist-academic is all about – it is part of producing spaces for change. You just have to figure out how to follow your own journey.
Tuesday, March 25, 2008
Alvin Y. So's discussion on New Dependency Theory
Alvin Y. So (1990) Social change and development: modernization, dependency, and world-system theories, Sage Publications, Newbury Park
Overview
Alvin So wrote this book in 1990 and is looking at Cardodo’s ‘new dependency theory.’ So argues that it is popular because of the following reasons:
So does not see dependency theory as ‘structural determination’: that is, that the structures immediately result in a pre-determined result. Rather, dependency theory is an open-ended process. Consequently, if we are given some of the same structures, a range of outcomes are possible which are dependent on a range of political alliances and social movements. While structures influence, there is no definite trend or direction that they result in.
Associated dependent development
Cardoba dismissed classical critique of military coup in Brazil: rather, he saw it as ‘associated dependent development’. This approach combines two statements that appear contradictory: dependency and development.
This is a new phase driven by the ongoing expansion of Trans-National Corporations (TNCs) that result in an invasion of industrial capital in periphery economies and leads to a new international division labour. Development occurs if the interests of the TNCs match those of the periphery nation. This, however, does not always lead to the ‘modernisation path’ – regression can and does occur in nations.
He also argues strongly, that a nation not should rely on TNCs setting up – rather, each nation must assert itself into the circuit of international capitalism.
To understand developments, there is a need to look at both foreign domination and domestic political forces: and these are dynamically interrelated and change. So presents three political actors here: the military, TNCs and bourgeoisie (p.142). This analysis has seen the emergence of ‘triple theme development studies’ – which has been applied in many areas.
O’Donnell’s bureaucratic-authoritarian state (B-A)
The bureaucratic-authoritarian state has a number of characteristics including:
The B-A state emerges only if corporations are willing to invest in the longer term – which is driven by a belief that there is a profitable and stable economy. To attract capital, then the B-A state must eliminate any threats that emerge towards this. Both the process of development and the elimination processes take time and are precarious. This process, driven by bureaucracies, may even mean there is a need to confront and faced challenges from old and established allies. This is a process that also relies on international institutions such as World Bank and the IMF for recognition.
When international capitalism begins to enter a nation in sustained fashion we see the concentration of power. If this leads to economic growth and development, then it is likely that we see control eased.
In what sounds familiar even today, the B-A state claims it is representing and pushing for what is best for the nation. Those who are excluded are asked to participate vicariously. This creates complex power relations, encouraging competitive capitalism to permeate everywhere except where capital flow are concerned – which continue to be monopolised by the elites. As a result, the relationship between the B-A state and international capital is described as ‘mutual indispensability.’
O’Donnell saw two ways for the BA state to fall: either it does not fulfil obligations and is forced to pass power to other elites, or it is successful and gives up its control (though remaining a power broker).
O’Donnell wrote this in the 1970s at the height of BA power.
Evan’s analysis of Brazil
Following the development ‘miracle’ in Brazil, its economy collapsed in the 1980s. Evan’s argument is that a changing external environment and internal contradictions caused this.
Evan’s sees this happening around a triple alliance of interests: the state, TNCs and local capital. While they often cooperate, Evan’s also believes these can also be in conflict. In Brazil then, we had the contradiction of dependent development were we get economic growth that benefits the few while the many suffered.
Gold and Taiwan
Gold was interested in understanding how far dynamic development could proceed without abandoning dependency theory, taking his analysis from Latin American model to SE Asia.
Gold’s focus is Taiwan, and how it moved towards Japan post the Chinese revolution, and began to implement export-led industrialisation (which included export processing zones and capital inflows. The transition has not been smooth with boom and trough, but there has emerged a dynamic dependency with deepening levels of industrialisation.
Unlike classical theorists, Gold sees Taiwan as ‘new factory imperialism.’ He is, however, quite optimistic, arguing that selective capitalism can assist nations develop in many positive ways.
Conclusion
New dependency theory has modified many of dependency theory’s assumptions – moving from determinism to dynamic in both internal and external factors. This gives us a more sophisticated analysis and includes:
My thoughts on this: I am thinking that much of these writings are still relevant today - it is always possible to dismiss the flaws in these theories, but they provide us with an important understanding of historical developments and how nations become dependent. This retards their 'development' because it is an unequal power relationship.
The attitude that emerged in the neoliberal world, however, is one that all states are equal, and historical factors do not count. These theorists remind us that they do!
Overview
Alvin So wrote this book in 1990 and is looking at Cardodo’s ‘new dependency theory.’ So argues that it is popular because of the following reasons:
- It is historical-structural: that is, it can identify the historical uniqueness of a given dependency situation – explaining each situation specifically;
- There is also a focus on the internal structures of dependency: meaning that we see a focus on the socio-political causes of dependency not just economic ones. Therefore, we see a focus on both the people within a nation and coerciveness of their own institutions.
So does not see dependency theory as ‘structural determination’: that is, that the structures immediately result in a pre-determined result. Rather, dependency theory is an open-ended process. Consequently, if we are given some of the same structures, a range of outcomes are possible which are dependent on a range of political alliances and social movements. While structures influence, there is no definite trend or direction that they result in.
Associated dependent development
Cardoba dismissed classical critique of military coup in Brazil: rather, he saw it as ‘associated dependent development’. This approach combines two statements that appear contradictory: dependency and development.
This is a new phase driven by the ongoing expansion of Trans-National Corporations (TNCs) that result in an invasion of industrial capital in periphery economies and leads to a new international division labour. Development occurs if the interests of the TNCs match those of the periphery nation. This, however, does not always lead to the ‘modernisation path’ – regression can and does occur in nations.
He also argues strongly, that a nation not should rely on TNCs setting up – rather, each nation must assert itself into the circuit of international capitalism.
To understand developments, there is a need to look at both foreign domination and domestic political forces: and these are dynamically interrelated and change. So presents three political actors here: the military, TNCs and bourgeoisie (p.142). This analysis has seen the emergence of ‘triple theme development studies’ – which has been applied in many areas.
O’Donnell’s bureaucratic-authoritarian state (B-A)
The bureaucratic-authoritarian state has a number of characteristics including:
- A dominance by bureaucrats;
- Political and economic exclusion of the many;
- A process of de-politicisation; and
- The deepening of dependence on capitalism.
The B-A state emerges only if corporations are willing to invest in the longer term – which is driven by a belief that there is a profitable and stable economy. To attract capital, then the B-A state must eliminate any threats that emerge towards this. Both the process of development and the elimination processes take time and are precarious. This process, driven by bureaucracies, may even mean there is a need to confront and faced challenges from old and established allies. This is a process that also relies on international institutions such as World Bank and the IMF for recognition.
When international capitalism begins to enter a nation in sustained fashion we see the concentration of power. If this leads to economic growth and development, then it is likely that we see control eased.
In what sounds familiar even today, the B-A state claims it is representing and pushing for what is best for the nation. Those who are excluded are asked to participate vicariously. This creates complex power relations, encouraging competitive capitalism to permeate everywhere except where capital flow are concerned – which continue to be monopolised by the elites. As a result, the relationship between the B-A state and international capital is described as ‘mutual indispensability.’
O’Donnell saw two ways for the BA state to fall: either it does not fulfil obligations and is forced to pass power to other elites, or it is successful and gives up its control (though remaining a power broker).
O’Donnell wrote this in the 1970s at the height of BA power.
Evan’s analysis of Brazil
Following the development ‘miracle’ in Brazil, its economy collapsed in the 1980s. Evan’s argument is that a changing external environment and internal contradictions caused this.
Evan’s sees this happening around a triple alliance of interests: the state, TNCs and local capital. While they often cooperate, Evan’s also believes these can also be in conflict. In Brazil then, we had the contradiction of dependent development were we get economic growth that benefits the few while the many suffered.
Gold and Taiwan
Gold was interested in understanding how far dynamic development could proceed without abandoning dependency theory, taking his analysis from Latin American model to SE Asia.
Gold’s focus is Taiwan, and how it moved towards Japan post the Chinese revolution, and began to implement export-led industrialisation (which included export processing zones and capital inflows. The transition has not been smooth with boom and trough, but there has emerged a dynamic dependency with deepening levels of industrialisation.
Unlike classical theorists, Gold sees Taiwan as ‘new factory imperialism.’ He is, however, quite optimistic, arguing that selective capitalism can assist nations develop in many positive ways.
Conclusion
New dependency theory has modified many of dependency theory’s assumptions – moving from determinism to dynamic in both internal and external factors. This gives us a more sophisticated analysis and includes:
- Ensuring historical factors are considered;
- A strong focus on internal and socio-political activities
- Looking at the links between dependency and development.
My thoughts on this: I am thinking that much of these writings are still relevant today - it is always possible to dismiss the flaws in these theories, but they provide us with an important understanding of historical developments and how nations become dependent. This retards their 'development' because it is an unequal power relationship.
The attitude that emerged in the neoliberal world, however, is one that all states are equal, and historical factors do not count. These theorists remind us that they do!
Sunday, January 27, 2008
Andre Gunter Frank: Theorist of underdevelopment
...I recently went back to read Frank’s theory of dependency. While many trash it and would point to the miracles of India and China as proof that ‘low-income’ nations can take a magic path to development, there is a lot to learn from Frank.
Frank is defined as a ‘development theorist’, and argued that development and underdevelopment are essentially two sides of the same coin. This is because underdevelopment results from a development that occurs through exploitation and suppression: which are a necessary component of the West's wealth accumulation and development.
On that point, by the way, there is a bunch of reasons while parts of China and India are doing so well – and in many ways, Frank’s arguments provide us insights around the satellite/centre reliance that has occurred within both China.
So, here is a solute to Frank and his work – done my reminding us of some of the important insights that he has provided us.
Frank’s analysis evolves around colonialism and imperialism – but he also stressed that it was not about substituting this ahead or in replacement of class analysis – rather a compliment to it.
Part 1: history
Frank begins his analysis by arguing that capitalism brings inevitably creates under-development: this is a systematic feature of capitalism that must be confronted. Frank’s project is to look the limitations of capitalism and how the demands to industrialise and develop lead to continued under-development of satellite nations. To do this, he looks at the ‘so-called’ inefficient and poor Brazilian Agricultural economy and argues that it is caused by international capitalist flows that place demands on poorer nations.
Frank then turns to remind us of the history and historical economic, colonialist and imperialist processes that have created the current capitalism-satellite relationships between nations: that is, we have powerful, wealthy nations in the centre (US and Europe), and smaller nations on the semi-periphery (such as Australia) and poor nations as satellites on the periphery. It is the exploitation of the satellite states that allows the wealthy to stay wealthy. Noting this, Frank states:
…it is fruitless to expect underdeveloped countries of today to respect the stages of economic growth passed through developed societies (p. xii)
Frank also argues that language is important – more implicitly than explicitly – noting that there is damage done when we describe people from the ‘third world’ and say that they are ‘backward’.
Importantly, Frank believes that the process of imperialism have concentrated wealthy within poorer nations – a concentration that continues to ensure that they stay on the periphery.
Combining these various streams, Frank’s key conclusion is that national capitalism together with the high level of concentration of wealth means that capitalism offers little, if any, way out of Latin America’s underdevelopment
So, given this colonial past, we cannot expect this capitalist structure to ever liberate the low-income world – rather, the role of promoting real development has fallen to the people alone. Frank argued that it was the responsibility of the intellectual to support these struggles. But to understand what people in low-income nations really need and want, Frank notes her had to “free myself of the liberal maxim” (p. xiv).
Frank then notes that we he first started his work, he believed that the problems of development were largely domestic – but for many, the problems are cased by liberal ideology that puts pressure on individual development and wealth.
Part 2: Internal colonialist development and capitalist underdevelopment
In this section Frank turns to expand his point that the imperialist project also led to internal colonialism. Imperialism should be viewed not as a specific series of events but fundamental to capitalism itself.
The internal colonialism has led to a concentration of wealth and power which leads to a polarisation of wealth because of the:
Colonialism also gave rise to a structure that benefited a specific landed class. This resulted in a concentration of income to a few individuals and families. In this way, ‘development’ leads to a loss of land for many. Farmers, therefore, move from tenants to agricultural wage earners – which ultimately leads to a fall in the quality of life.
This is cemented by tax concessions and subsidies that assist in the concentration: monetary and fiscal policies that assist wealthy farmers at the expense of farmers. The system is unlikely to change as it benefits those in charge.
Part 3: Imperialist development and capitalist under-development
One idea that Frank continues to come back to in his arguments is that under-development is driven by structural cause. In an insight that many of those theorists that are concerned about the excess of free markets – including me of course – that when the markets fail the solution is more access to markets, Frank argued that the very policies that have caused problems are the ones that are re-introduced.
He also argued that there are many important economic issues, such as terms of trade, which are used take the focus away from the real structural problems causing under-development.
He then turns to make two broad arguments that I suppose would be dismissed today. The first is the argument for ‘import substitution’. Importantly, Frank states that it has to be a specific form and around specific goods, can work. In its current form, however, it does not work and mainly aggravates the problems of development.
The second point that Frank makes is that technology continues to be expensive and continues to keep the periphery reliant on the core. This has changed somewhat, but access to technology that is both affordable and appropriate continues to be a problem 40 plus years after Frank wrote this work.
In finishing this section, Frank argues that there is little chance in overcoming the crisis of under-development within the very system that produces it (p.213).
Conclusion
Frank concludes by returning to the issue of Brazil – which he sees as continually becoming ever more integrated in the metropolis/satellite structure of the world capitalist system. Within this system, there is little chance to act independently: for those who though that the left leaning president, Lulu, would change this have seen just how integrated Brazil is in this periphery/core system. Frank concludes by saying that to change this, we must see the system changed the masses of people rather than the elites who have been captured (p.217).
Frank, A.G. (1967) Capitalism and underdevelopment in Latin America; historical studies of Chile and Brazil, New York, Monthly Review Press
Frank is defined as a ‘development theorist’, and argued that development and underdevelopment are essentially two sides of the same coin. This is because underdevelopment results from a development that occurs through exploitation and suppression: which are a necessary component of the West's wealth accumulation and development.
On that point, by the way, there is a bunch of reasons while parts of China and India are doing so well – and in many ways, Frank’s arguments provide us insights around the satellite/centre reliance that has occurred within both China.
So, here is a solute to Frank and his work – done my reminding us of some of the important insights that he has provided us.
Frank’s analysis evolves around colonialism and imperialism – but he also stressed that it was not about substituting this ahead or in replacement of class analysis – rather a compliment to it.
Part 1: history
Frank begins his analysis by arguing that capitalism brings inevitably creates under-development: this is a systematic feature of capitalism that must be confronted. Frank’s project is to look the limitations of capitalism and how the demands to industrialise and develop lead to continued under-development of satellite nations. To do this, he looks at the ‘so-called’ inefficient and poor Brazilian Agricultural economy and argues that it is caused by international capitalist flows that place demands on poorer nations.
Frank then turns to remind us of the history and historical economic, colonialist and imperialist processes that have created the current capitalism-satellite relationships between nations: that is, we have powerful, wealthy nations in the centre (US and Europe), and smaller nations on the semi-periphery (such as Australia) and poor nations as satellites on the periphery. It is the exploitation of the satellite states that allows the wealthy to stay wealthy. Noting this, Frank states:
…it is fruitless to expect underdeveloped countries of today to respect the stages of economic growth passed through developed societies (p. xii)
Frank also argues that language is important – more implicitly than explicitly – noting that there is damage done when we describe people from the ‘third world’ and say that they are ‘backward’.
Importantly, Frank believes that the process of imperialism have concentrated wealthy within poorer nations – a concentration that continues to ensure that they stay on the periphery.
Combining these various streams, Frank’s key conclusion is that national capitalism together with the high level of concentration of wealth means that capitalism offers little, if any, way out of Latin America’s underdevelopment
So, given this colonial past, we cannot expect this capitalist structure to ever liberate the low-income world – rather, the role of promoting real development has fallen to the people alone. Frank argued that it was the responsibility of the intellectual to support these struggles. But to understand what people in low-income nations really need and want, Frank notes her had to “free myself of the liberal maxim” (p. xiv).
Frank then notes that we he first started his work, he believed that the problems of development were largely domestic – but for many, the problems are cased by liberal ideology that puts pressure on individual development and wealth.
Part 2: Internal colonialist development and capitalist underdevelopment
In this section Frank turns to expand his point that the imperialist project also led to internal colonialism. Imperialism should be viewed not as a specific series of events but fundamental to capitalism itself.
The internal colonialism has led to a concentration of wealth and power which leads to a polarisation of wealth because of the:
- Concentration of investment in both the public and private sphere;
- The emergence of a regressive taxation structure; and
- A transfer of capitalism from poor to wealth areas.
Colonialism also gave rise to a structure that benefited a specific landed class. This resulted in a concentration of income to a few individuals and families. In this way, ‘development’ leads to a loss of land for many. Farmers, therefore, move from tenants to agricultural wage earners – which ultimately leads to a fall in the quality of life.
This is cemented by tax concessions and subsidies that assist in the concentration: monetary and fiscal policies that assist wealthy farmers at the expense of farmers. The system is unlikely to change as it benefits those in charge.
Part 3: Imperialist development and capitalist under-development
One idea that Frank continues to come back to in his arguments is that under-development is driven by structural cause. In an insight that many of those theorists that are concerned about the excess of free markets – including me of course – that when the markets fail the solution is more access to markets, Frank argued that the very policies that have caused problems are the ones that are re-introduced.
He also argued that there are many important economic issues, such as terms of trade, which are used take the focus away from the real structural problems causing under-development.
He then turns to make two broad arguments that I suppose would be dismissed today. The first is the argument for ‘import substitution’. Importantly, Frank states that it has to be a specific form and around specific goods, can work. In its current form, however, it does not work and mainly aggravates the problems of development.
The second point that Frank makes is that technology continues to be expensive and continues to keep the periphery reliant on the core. This has changed somewhat, but access to technology that is both affordable and appropriate continues to be a problem 40 plus years after Frank wrote this work.
In finishing this section, Frank argues that there is little chance in overcoming the crisis of under-development within the very system that produces it (p.213).
Conclusion
Frank concludes by returning to the issue of Brazil – which he sees as continually becoming ever more integrated in the metropolis/satellite structure of the world capitalist system. Within this system, there is little chance to act independently: for those who though that the left leaning president, Lulu, would change this have seen just how integrated Brazil is in this periphery/core system. Frank concludes by saying that to change this, we must see the system changed the masses of people rather than the elites who have been captured (p.217).
Frank, A.G. (1967) Capitalism and underdevelopment in Latin America; historical studies of Chile and Brazil, New York, Monthly Review Press
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